Resurgence of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kajiado County, Kenya: A coordinated response and entomological survey

Publication Type

Journal Article

Journal Name

International journal of infectious diseases

Name of Author

Damaris Matoke-Muhia, Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Barrack O. Owino, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, icipe, Nairobi, Kenya; Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.
Steve Kiplagat, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, icipe, Nairobi, Kenya.
Hannah N. Mwangi, Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya; Kreavet, Kruibeke, Belgium.
Johnstone M. Ingonga, Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Daniel Njenga, Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Benny B. Septer, Centre for Biotechnology Research and Development, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Mwatela Kitondo, African Centre for Community Investments in Health (ACCIH), Nairobi, Kenya.
Daniel Mwiti, Division of Vector-Borne and Neglected Tropical Diseases, Ministry of Health, Nairobi, Kenya.
Charles Magiri, Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Nairobi, Kenya.
Hellen Nyakundi, African Centre for Community Investments in Health (ACCIH), Nairobi, Kenya.
Juliet Onditi, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, icipe, Nairobi, Kenya.
Sarah Weihl, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Catherine Wenger, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Abhay Satoskar, Division of Experimental Pathology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, USA.
Jandouwe Villinger, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, icipe, Nairobi, Kenya.
Shaden Kamhawi, Vector Molecular Biology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), Rockville, Maryland, USA.
Joseph Ndungu, Foundation for Innovative New Diagnostics (FIND), Nairobi, Kenya.
Richard Wamai, African Centre for Community Investments in Health (ACCIH), Nairobi, Kenya; Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.
Daniel K. Masiga, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, icipe, Nairobi, Kenya. Electronic address: dmasiga@icipe.org.

Publication Date

3-2026

Abstract

OBJECTIVES: This study investigated emergence of visceral leishmaniasis (VL) in 2021, in Kajiado County in Kenya, representing a newly recognized region of endemic transmission. METHODS: The investigation involved community sensitization, medical camps, and entomological surveys across eight villages. We screened 100 individuals with indicative symptoms of leishmaniasis, and also carried out an entomological survey. RESULTS: We found 10 patients of VL, predominantly in children under 15. Of 22 suspected cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) cases, eight were confirmed with Leishmania tropica. Entomological surveys identified 4781 sandflies, with Sergentomyia species being most abundant. DNA of Leishmania donovani was detected in multiple Sergentomyia species and Phlebotomus saevus, while L. tropica DNA was found in P. saevus. Blood meal analysis revealed a strong preference for human blood, followed by goats, indicating high human-vector contact. CONCLUSION: The study highlights the value of a multisectoral approach to outbreak responses, which resulted establishment of two new treatment centers in Kajiado, enhancing continuing access to care and associated surveillance. The study confirmed L. donovani and L. tropica as the causative agents for VL and CL, respectively, in Kajiado. The unusual co-occurrence of both forms complicates treatment and raises concerns about potential genetic recombination.

Keywords

Cutaneous leishmaniasis, Kala azar, Leishmaniasis, Phlebotomus martini, Phlebotomus orientalis, Sand fly, Visceral leishmaniasis

Recommended Citation

Matoke-Muhia, D., Owino, B. O., Kiplagat, S., Mwangi, H. N., Ingonga, J. M., Njenga, D., Septer, B. B., Kitondo, M., Mwiti, D., Magiri, C., Nyakundi, H., Onditi, J., Weihl, S., Wenger, C., Satoskar, A., Villinger, J., Kamhawi, S., Ndungu, J., Wamai, R., & Masiga, D. K. (2026). Resurgence of visceral and cutaneous leishmaniasis in Kajiado County, Kenya: A coordinated response and entomological survey. International journal of infectious diseases, 164, 108309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2025.108309

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-No Derivative Works 4.0 International License.